Stagnation and Economic Decline in Hindu society, from the years 900 to 1200

In Hindu society since the early 900s, feuds over possession of land were common -- between families and between principalities. Vendettas developed between families. Wars arose. Potentates had risen to power through violence, and many of them wished to perpetuate an image of military prowess and to acquire more land -- land being the major source of status. A disparaging remark by a rival was justification for starting a war, and wars were made into grand pageants.

Wars were also glorified in literature -- as they had been in the story of Krishna in a chariot with Arjuna. Death on the battlefield was seen as the highest possible honor. And the dead warrior's wife was obliged to join her husband in death -- a ritual sacrifice called suti. In suti, the spirit of the woman put to flames snatches her husband from the hands of Yamdoot (the messenger of death) and takes him to Swarglok (paradise).

Landowners with great power were accumulating more land at the expense of their more humble neighbors. Less land was available to free peasants, and more people became hired workers on the land of the wealthy. Estate owners lived in splendor while others did the work. A few princes had thousands of servants and hangers-on. A few had harems. Their families wore extravagant clothes and jewels. Owners gave land to others to manage, while those who worked their lands were denied freedom and relegated to the Shudra caste -- the caste of menials.

Agriculture on the big estates remained inefficient, and a large part of the rest of agriculture in Hindu society was subsistence farming -- farming without trade. There was no beef industry that was supplementing the diet of people as in Europe. In India the veneration of cattle was inimical to this kind of meat industry.

Enough surplus was produced by the great estates that some trade with foreigners flourished. Indians continued to export rice, other cereals, coconuts, spices, sugar, woods, dyes and precious stones, while importing perfumes, finished cloth including silk, wax, precious stones, gold, medicinal herbs, ceramics and metal wares. But much of this trade was handled by foreign merchants -- mainly Muslims. Brahmins were much like the Confucians in their opposition to trade, the Brahmins making involvement in foreign trade, as well as farming and overseas travel, forbidden to their class. Generally, religious contemplation was esteemed while people with power had little interest in improving conditions for the merchant or in improving technology.

There was, however, an improvement in the making of cotton. Muslims introduced India to a new method of working cotton -- the Carter's bow -- an improvement over beating the cotton with switches. The spinning wheel also appeared and increased cotton production.

By the 13th century, many trade guilds were disappearing, and many trade connections were coming to a close. Trade within India had diminished as wealth was hoarded rather than invested -- hoarded either by wealthy individuals or by religious establishments. And, with diminished trade, roads deteriorated. In towns were merchants with a spirit of enterprise. There was bustle and hard work, but in India a centralized government was not benefiting the middle class. Big landowners, princes and potentates, would remain most influential -- a conservative influence as in Spain, Russia and eastern Europe in general. The landed wealthy in India would wield a conservative authoritarianism. India would remain as conservatively religious as Spain and eastern Europe, with taboos inhibiting modernization. Brahmin priests encouraged obscurantism among India's elite. Rodents and insects could not be killed and vast amount of foodstuffs were lost. Rules about handling refuse and excreta contributed to disease. The caste system choked initiative. And rather than send investments and soldiers abroad, India would be receiving them.