Julian the Apostate

The Emperor Constantine died in 337. Each of his three sons acquired rule in a portion of the empire. And the harmony that Eusebius celebrated did not materialize. The eldest son, Constantine II, claimed authority over his brothers, who were unwilling to submit. One of the brothers, Constans, defeated Constantine II, and Constantine II died. Constans was killed by a rebel military commander, and the third and sole surviving brother, Constantius, left the front against Persia, defeated the rebel commander and acquired rule over the entire empire. And to consolidate his rule he had members of his army murder possible rivals within his family: half-brothers and others.

Constantius attempted to extend his victories into the realm of religion. Unlike his deceased brothers and some others in his family, Constantius was an Arian Christian. Believing that he was advancing the cause of Christianity, he exiled numerous Trinity-believing bishops. And, to advance the cause of Christianity, he also banned the ritual sacrifices of pagans, making participation in such rituals a capital offense. Mobs of zealous Christians followed the lead of Constantius by invading pagan temples and overturning alters. And pagans across the empire responded with bitterness and rioting.

Constantius had chosen to rear one of the boys orphaned by the slaughter: a five-year-old named Julian. Julian felt oppressed by Christian strictness and the earnestness with which his guardians espoused Christianity. Secretly Julian rebelled against Christianity. He became bookish and acquired a love for Hellenistic culture. By now, Christian bishops were proud of their Greek culture, and Julian was allowed to further his Hellenist education. Secretly he became a neo-Platonist, while continuing an outward appearance of Christian devotion.

When Julian was twenty-three, Constantius sent him to Gaul at the head of an army against the Franks and Alamanni who were invading Gaul. There Julian proved himself an able leader, winning a great victory in 357 on the Rhine River at Strasbourg and expelling the Franks and Alamanni from the empire. Constantius became jealous of the glory won by Julian, and he was concerned about him as a rival. He kept Julian and his army short of funds and kept him under surveillance.

Constantius died of fever in 361 (to be known to historians as Constantius II). Julian became emperor and began his rule with a policy of toleration toward all religions. Lacking the hostility felt by Christians toward Jews, he rescinded a law that forbade marriage between Jews and Christians. He rescinded the law that banned Jews from entering Jerusalem, and he allowed Jews in Jerusalem to rebuild their temple. While maintaining the rights of Christians as citizens, including their right to worship, Julian moved to abolish privileges that had been bestowed upon the Christian clergy, including their positions as teachers. Christian hostility toward Julian grew. In 363, he led a military campaign against Shapur II, pushing Shapur's forces back to his capital, Ctesiphon, as the Persians scorched the earth in retreat. Julian's army captured many, including women and youths, and he allowed no one to molest them. Again he went into battle against the Persians, and he died of wounds from an arrow or spear. Christians rejoiced at news of his death, and they expressed their belief that Julian's death was the work of God. The following year, 364, the Greek orator, Libanius of Antioch, stated that Julian had been assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers.

With Julian's death, his army's leaders chose one among them as their commander: Jovian, a trinity-believing Christian. In becoming commander of what had been Julian's army, Jovian became emperor, and Christians in the Roman Empire celebrated the return of a Christian as head of state. Turning his attention to domestic affairs, Jovian transferred state support from pagan temples to Christian churches, but he decreed religious toleration for pagans and for Arian Christians. Then, after only months in power, he died from the fumes of his freshly plastered and unventilated bedroom.

The army declared as emperor another Christian, a general to become known as Valentinian, a capable military commander from Illyricum. Valentinian believed that defense of the empire required at least two emperors, and he appointed his brother Valens as Emperor of the East. Valentinian continued religious toleration, declaring that no religion was to be declared criminal. He created schools throughout his realm. And to protect the poor he created offices called Defenders of the People.

Meanwhile, the world of harmony that Eusebius thought God and Constantine had created for the world appeared more elusive in the year 366 as rival factions in Rome supported different men for Bishop of Rome. Emperors no longer resided in Rome, and the bishops of Rome were becoming the city's leading potentate and authority. In the competition for power, a local Roman deacon, Damasus, was elected, but it was disputed by another deacon from Rome, Ursinus. Supporters clashed in the streets and in churches. Blood flowed and Emperor Valentinian had to send a force to quell the rioting. Ursinus and some of his followers were exiled and became established in Milan, and with continuing intrigues Ursinus was exiled to Cologne. He sought to succeed Damasus following Damasus' death in 384, but lost again, to Siricius, another deacon from Rome.

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